Difference Between Freud vs. Erikson Essay - 1023 Words

Difference between Freud vs. Erikson ENG 121 Difference between Freud vs. Erikson In this essay, I am going to compare and contrast two famous theorists Erik Erikson and Sigmund Freud. I will be talking about each of these theorists and their famous theories of psychosocial and psychosexual, since they both are well known development theories. I will provide enough information about both and explain the differences of each, as well. First off, Freud had inspired Erickson who had theories that were in a number of ways different than Freud’s. Freud and Erickson have similarities and differences in the things that do or explore within their theories and the way they do things. Freud was the most well known person to be called The†¦show more content†¦Freud’s Psychosexual Stage is of the human development that began in the early 19th century. He developed such a general theory for psychosexual development that starts from infancy and goes to adulthood. As for Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage of Development which impact the human development i n humans. Erikson takes the importance of placing the social and cultural components of a human’s development experiences. Each of these theorists had various stages that went from just being born to adulthood. And I will compare and contrast each one, as well. The first stage is birth to 1 years old and between Freud and Erikson it seems to be about the same, but different. For instance, Freud’s stage is of Oral in which the child has a primary source of pleasure that comes through their mouth from tasting, eating and/or sucking. As for Erikson’s stage is the trust vs. mistrust stage that has the child to learn to gain the trust or mistrust of their parent’s or caregivers. The second stage is 1 to 3 years old and in the Freud stage it is the anal stage. In the anal stage for Freud, the children get a sense of power to control and learn how to potty train themselves to become masters at a sense of growing up. In Erikson’s stage it is Autonomy vs. Doubt. Autonomy vs. Doubt contributes to children controlling their activities like going to the bathroom, eating, talking, and so much more. The third stage is from ages 3 to 6Show MoreRelatedErik Erikson s Psychosocial Theory1652 Words   |  7 PagesErik Erikson s psychosocial theory and Sigmund Freud s psychosexual theory are two well-known theories of personality development with various similarities and differences. While Erikson was influenced by Freud s ideas, his theory differed in a number of important ways and was ultimately created to be an improvement to Freud’s personality development theory (Friedman Schustack, 2012). Like Freud’s psychosexual theory, Erikson agreed that personality progresses in a sequence of predeterminedRead MorePsychoanalytic Theories Explain Development As Unconscious Processes That Are Heavily Colored By Emotion846 Words   |  4 Pagesemotion (Santrock 2014). Sigmund Freud was a psychoanalytic theorist who established a psycho sexual theory believing that development occurred during life stage conflicts between a source of pleasure and the demands of reality. Many theorists after Freud believed that there was a good basis in Freud’s theory but it relied too much on the idea of sexual instincts. One such theorist was Erik Erikson, who developed a psychosocial theory about development. Erikson believed that human’s motivationRead MoreStages of Development: Erikson vs. Freud1466 Words   |  6 PagesIn 1905 Sigmund Freud theorized that childhood development happens in stages, which are called â€Å"Psychosexual Development Stages.† In 1950 Erik Erikson developed â€Å"Psychosocial Stages,† which are greatly influenced by Freud’s theories. Freud’s theory centers on psychosexual energy or the libido. Erickson’s theory centers on issues and tasks being met at specific ages. Even though we are sexual beings, our developmental stages do not focus entirely o n sexual pleasures. Both theories do show thatRead MorePsychology2912 Words   |  12 PagesPSYCOLOGY EXAM Differentiate between Freud and Eriksons approach to psychoanalytic theory in this lesson. You will examine and compare developmental stages side by side and have the opportunity to test your knowledge with a quiz at the end. Example for Comparison Mary has a 3-month-old daughter. Mary bottle feeds her child and follows a strict schedule for feeding times. The child is not allowed to have a pacifier. Mary is an affectionate parent, and all of her childs needs are met. How couldRead MoreTheories Of Sigmund Freud And Jean Piaget1420 Words   |  6 Pagesthree well-known theorists, Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, and Jean Piaget. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Also known as the â€Å"father of modern psychology†, Sigmund Freud, was a Vietnamese neuropathologist (LumenLearning, 2017). Upon caring for a patient one day, Freud accidentally discovered that when he would stimulate the patient to think of past childhood memories the patient’s symptoms would vanish bringing Freud to a self-discovery of the unconscious mind. Freud developed an illustration to help betterRead MoreDevelopmental Theories, Erikson And Freud Essay979 Words   |  4 Pagesdevelopment means and how people develop, especially children. In this essay I will talk about two very important developmental theories, Erikson and Freud. In addition, compare their similarities and their differences. Erikson was a psychologist who was greatly influenced by Freud. Although influenced by Freud there are some differences in there developmental stages. Erikson believed that development in an individual was molded by society, culture, and environment. While Freud’s belief was that developmentRead MoreErik Erikson s Theory Of Psychosocial Development Essay1177 Words   |  5 Pages Erik Erikson was born in Greman in 1902-1994, American psychoanalyst; known for psychosocial theory of emotional development of human beings. His theory looks at the impact of parents and society on personality development from childhood to adulthood. Erikson believes, each person has to pass through a series of eight stages over there entire life cycle. I will look at the first 3 stages that cover the childhood years. There are set of conflict at each stage, which allows individual to developRead MoreTheories And Theory Of Psychosocial Development Essay1255 Words   |  6 Pagesthey are important to my future discipline and also analyze the relationship between my chosen therapist Freud and Erikson. Two key theories Freud s Theory of Psychosexual and Erikson s Theory of Psychosocial development are both psychoanalytic theories. Sigmund Freud concluded that personality develops through several stages and the psychosexual development was the driving force behind behavior. Sigmund Freud s psychoanalytic theory of personality argued that human behavior was the resultRead MoreThe Early Pioneers Of Development Theories With Modern Psychology Essay1931 Words   |  8 PagesLillian Siegler W1 Assignment 3 Human Growth and Development PSY2022 SO2 Lisa Voorhees 11/05/2016 Freud, Erickson and Piaget are some of the early pioneers of development theories with modern psychology. Sigmund Freud is a Austrian neurologist who is known for his theories and techniques with psychoanalysis. Erick Erikson is a German who was born in America and was best known for developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst for his theory based on psychosocial development within humans. JeanRead MoreErik Erikson s Stages Of Development1608 Words   |  7 Pages The Psychosocial Development The View on Erik H. Erikson s Stages of Development Frank Phan Cosumnes River College Psychology 300 Abstract This paper will touch over the aspects of Erik H Erickson s eight stages and how they affect everyday lives from infancy to adulthood. The paper will go over the approximate ages and the psychosocial crisis that they will eventually come to. Neglecting a child can lead to a cause of mental negligence in the form of Arrested Development. Within different

Ancient Egypt And Ancient Civilizations - 1302 Words

As seen throughout time, one of the chief concerns of all ancient civilizations was to maintain order and stability. Civilizations such as ancient Egypt, ancient Rome and even the ancient Babylonian societies all set forth an effort to maintain stability. Influencing forces on this stability were religious, political and even geographical. I’ve noticed that many civilizations flourish for hundreds of years only to fall or be taken over by the next generation. Some cities today are remnants of these fallen empires such as Rome in Italy or Alexandria in Egypt. Our earliest signs of human civilization date all the way back to 10,000BCE, when we see the Neolithic revolution. First signs of farming are seen in the fertile crescent, along with the domestication of animals. The spread of agriculture allows for permanent settling in a single area. The Fertile Crescent was the perfect place for first civilization because it was located in major river basins which in turn made the soil extremely fertile. The Tigres and Euphrates river that surrounded the Fertile Crescent also acted as an easy source of transportation through out the area. This encouraged trade and the development of new communities. Around 5300BCE Sumaria is often accepted as the first civilization, it was a collection of city-states who shared common values and they also had Cuneiform which was the first documented form of writing. Sumaria also held the first government bureaucracy with laws which helped them holdShow MoreRelatedAncient Egypt : An Ancient Civilization1523 Words   |  7 Pages Ancient Egypt, an ancient civilization known today as one of the world’s greatest, would last over 3000 years thanks to the many Egyptians contributing to its success. One such Egyptian was the Pharaoh, Akhenaton. Born to King Amenhotep III, Akhenaton ascended to the throne at around 1353 BCE . He was also known as Amenhotep IV, but would later change his name to Akhenaton in order to worship the g od â€Å"Aton† . Akhenaton may be considered one of the most important figures in Egyptian history seeingRead MoreAncient Egypt : An Ancient Civilization1853 Words   |  8 Pagesapart of an ancient civilization? Well, if I had to chose an ancient civilization to be apart of I’d chose the Egypt (Nile) because of it’s great economic standards and it’s interesting culture and religion. In Egypt they had great agriculture resources, festivals, and lots of different customs and beliefs. This all sounds interesting right? Well, if you want to know more, keep reading! What was Egypt’s economy based on exactly? You’ve heard of the Nile River right? Well, in ancient Egypt they reliedRead MoreAncient Egypt Civilization : Ancient And Modern Egypt968 Words   |  4 Pages Ancient and Modern Egypt There are some countries that have a large civilization, but how many countries have had a successful civilization throughout its existence? What if there is a country that has a civilization from 7000 years ago that has a rich history, various progresses, cultures, governments, customs, and habits? A lot of its heritage still exists until now, Egypt was one of the most wonderful civilizations in human history. Ancient Egyptians lived around the Nile River, where they foundRead MoreAncient Egypt : The Greatest Ancient Civilizations869 Words   |  4 PagesAncient Egypt was one of the greatest ancient civilizations in human history. Ancient Egypt was the longest lasting civilization in the ancient world and lasted for about 2,500 years. ancient Egypt was able to last so long because of their many great accomplishments. The most important thing that lead to the accomplishments and success of ancient Egypt was The Nile River. Ancient Egypt is often referred to as the â€Å"Gift of th e Nile† because of how important the Nile River was to the success and longevityRead MoreAncient Egypt And Ancient Egyptian Civilization847 Words   |  4 Pagesparts of this culture was its belief in the afterlife. This belief was so widely accepted and important to the people of Egypt that it influenced many aspects of their everyday lives. The version of the afterlife that the Egyptians believed in was very different from other religions and cultures. The immortality ideology is something that many cultures grappled with. The ancient Egyptian belief was the epitome of immortality ideology. Everything that the Egyptians did was influenced by the idea ofRead MoreAncient Egypt And Ancient Egyptian Civilization865 Words   |  4 PagesThe Ancient Egyptian Civilization The Ancient Egyptians society is what I think is the best civilization that ever lived. Ancient Egypt was a civilization of ancient Northern Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern country of Egypt. It is one of six civilizations globally to arise independently. From the great pyramids of the military conquests of the New Kingdom, Egypt’s majesty has long entranced archaeologists and historians and created a vibrantRead MoreAncient Egypt And Ancient Egyptian Civilization1495 Words   |  6 Pagesâ€Å"Egypt treated its women better than any of the other major civilizations of the ancient world† (Thompson). Over 6,000 years ago, the powerful civilization of Ancient Egypt began, lasting for almost 30 centuries. Ancient Egyptians treated their cats like royalty, used spells and animal flesh to heal almost anything (Napoli Balit). Most Importantly, the people of Ancient Egypt valued their polytheistic religion above everyth ing, they worked hard in order to get into the paradise of the afterlifeRead MoreAncient Egypt And The Egyptian Civilization951 Words   |  4 Pages3400 BC, the rise of the civilization along the Nile river began what we know today as the reign of Egypt. As one of humanity s oldest civilizations, Ancient Egypt was responsible for the amalgamate out of the smaller cultures found along the Nile River and into the Nile Valley civilization, developing into the three stages of kingdoms over time. The Egyptians or the Nile Valley civilization got its name due to the proximity of the river Nile in Egypt. Rivers of the ancient world were vital to mankindRead MoreAncient Egypt And The Egyptian Civilization902 Words   |  4 PagesWhen we think of ancient civilizations the first one that normally stands out is Ancient Egypt. The Egyptians were one of the very few that arose to civilization independently, and accomplished many impressive things along the way. The Egyptian civilization stret ched along the lower reaches of the Nile River in Northeastern Africa. Religion was at the core of everything that the Egyptians were and they stood firm for what they believed in. Their religion was based on polytheism, which was the beliefRead MoreAncient Egypt : The World Civilizations Essay1084 Words   |  5 PagesWorld Civilizations I Mr. Shows 7 November 2016 Ancient Egypt Multiple factors go into account when considering that Ancient Egypt is one of the best civilizations of all time. First, the location of Egypt allowed it to prosper; second, the culture was one that the world hadn’t seen until then; third, the architecture that took place baffles scientists to this day; and lastly the impact it had on modern culture. Egypt is located in a prime location for civilization to spring up. Egypt possessed

What Is Computer Architecture Essay Example For Students

What Is Computer Architecture Essay Computer Architecture 1. There have been a lot of developments in microprocessors since the 286 chip. The 286 CPU are no longer sold and are very rarely found in commercial use today because of its running speed, which is between 10MHz to 20MHz. This processor has a 24-bit address bus, and is able to address up to 16 million different address locations. It also has two operating modes, which are real mode and protected mode. The real mode is basically for normal DOS operations and it uses only 8086 code (8086 was the previous CPU). When it was in protected mode the CPU is able to access beyond the 1mb address limit and employed its added features, which were intended for multi-tasking operations such as Windows, but this CPU is not powerful enough to carry out these multi-tasking operations. The 286 came with a bus width of 16-bit internal, 24-bit address, and 16-bit external, with an external speed of between 6MHz – 25MHz, and an internal speed of between 6MHz – 25MHz. The next CPU was the 386, this is also no longer produced it had a slightly faster running speeds which are between 16MHz to 40MHz. This CPU could carry out effective multi tasking operations. It also had a substantial improvement in both memory management and it had an enlarged instruction set. It is also the minimum CPU for running windows. It came in two types the 386 SX and the 386 DX. The SX had a 32-bit internal data path but it only had a 16-bit path between the CPU and the computer memory. The DX on the other hand had a 32-bit data bus between the CPU and the memory chips allowing larger data transfers so it had faster through put. It also was able to use external cache memory, usually about 64k, which also improved performance. The 386 came in two different types they both had a internal bus width of 32 bit, the SX had a address bus width of 24 bit, and a external bus width of 16 bit, its internal and external speed was between 16MHz – 33MHz. The DX however had an a ddress and external bus width of 32 bit, its internal and external speed was between 33MHz–40MHz. The 486 were the next CPU, this is still produced, there was little change to the 386 instruction set, but the 486 ran at speeds between 20MHz to 100MHz. There was more emphasis placed on the enhancements to improve the performance. It was also available in the DX and SX varieties. The difference between them was that the DX had a maths co-processor the SX did not, the Motherboards that used the 486SX chip had a spare maths co-processor socket to upgrade to a DX. The 486 chip because of its design to carry out the most common instructions in a single clock cycle this was a faster than the previous CPUs. It also had 8k of bit in cache memory, the new burst mode it had, allowed memory transfers from consecutive memory locations to be carried out at one clock cycle. The 486 came in four different types they all had a bus width of 32 bit (internal, address, and external), with an external speed of between 20MHz – 50MHz. The differences between them were in the internal speeds of t he CPU. The SX had an internal speed of between 20MHz – 50MHz, the DX had an internal speed of between 25MHz – 50MHz, the DX2 had an internal speed of between 50MHz – 66MHz. The DX4 had an internal speed of between 100MHz – 120MHz, which was actually faster than the bottom of the Pentium range. The Pentium CPU came and is the current entry level standard for computers. This CPU is effectively two that are in the one chip. This then allows two instructions to be executed in parallel, which means it greatly speeds up throughput. It also has the main mathematical operations hard wired into the chip this then means that it can be up to ten times faster than the 486DX maths coprocessor can. All the Pentium models are supercalar. The basic chip has two integer processing pipelines. It also has a branch prediction facility which is 90% of the time correctly predicts the flow of the program and fetches the instruction from the buffer area. This type of CPU has a specially designed high performance Floating Point Unit and a 16 bit internal cache. The Pentium CPUs have a bus width of 232-bit internal, 32-bit address, and 64-bit external, with an external speed of between 33MHz – 83MHz, and an internal speed of between 63MHz – 233MHz. 2. The term RAM stands for random access memory which is a storage device made up of silicon chips. A computer has two types of RAM these use arrays of transistor switches to store the binary data or in other words the switches on the chips can change, which is done by an electrical current being passed through them. This type of memory is volatile which means that any information that is in it when the computer is switched off is then lost, apart from the program which is being run at that time which is unaffected as it is only a copy of it. This then means that the users created data has to be saved before the computer is switched off. The term ROM stands for read only memory that can only be read but cannot be written to. This type of memory is not volatile this means that all the switches on the silicon chips are already set, which means that any information that is in it when the computer is switched off is then kept. The computer BIOS is stored in this type of chip so that the basic computer control programs are available as soon as the computer is switched on so it can operate. These ROM chips cannot be changed unlike the RAM chips. The computer also sets the patterns on these chips form commands, information or programs that the needs to operate. This means the data is hard-wired into the ROM chip. You can store the chip forever and the data will always be there. Besides, the data is very secure. The BIOS is stored on ROM because the user cannot disrupt the information. There are different types of ROM, too:1. Programmable ROM (PROM). This is basically a blank ROM chip that can be written to, but only once. I t is much like a CD-R drive that burns the data into the CD. Some companies use special machinery to write Proms for special purposes. 2. Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM). This is just like PROM, except that you can erase the ROM by shining a special ultra-violet light into a sensor atop the ROM chip for a certain amount of time. Doing this wipes the data out, allowing it to be rewritten. Population Growth Essay2- Transfer the data. 3- Telling it what it wants to do. 4. The diagram on the last page shows how CPU registers are used, the diagram is called the Fetch / Execute Cycle, and there is two main parts, the fetch cycle and the execute cycle. These cycles can be divided into a more specific description of how the registers are used, the fetch part of the cycle is the same regardless of the instruction but the instructions will change in the execute part of the cycle. This cycle can be broken down into a more detailed account of how the various registers are used they are detailed below. Registers, are specialized storage areas, these are used to hold information temporarily while it is being decoded. Each of these registers has a defined purpose to carry out so that the computer can operate effectively. A General-purpose registers that are used for performing arithmetic functions. A Current instruction registers that contain both the operator and the operand of the current instruction. The Program Counter is the register that holds the address of the next instruction to be carried out these instruction are automatically incremented to the next instruction. But when the current instruction is a branch or jump instruction, then that address is copied from the instruction to the Program Counter. The Program Counter is copied to the Memory Address Register which hold the address of the memory locations from which information will be read or to which data will be written and occasionally. It will hold the address of the instruction in the fetch cycle and the information to be used in an instruction in the execute cycle. Memory data registers are used to temporarily store information read from or written to the memory. Data goes here before it goes to the Current Instruction Register where it is decoded. Once the instruction has been decoded the operand of the instruction is put in the MAR and the data will then be copied to the MDR. Any transfers of data from memory go via the MDR. The MDR and the MAR serve the system as screen registers, this allows for the difference in speed between the CPU and the memory. The CIR or Current Instruction Register is where the instruction is copied to it holds both the operator and the operand of the current instruction If the Fetch / Execute cycle is interrupted by more information then it will stack the cycle between the fetch and execute phase then deal with the new data and return to the interrupted cycle. The test for interrupts is only carried out at the end of each instruction cycle. When the item in the MDR is added to the Accumulator the whole operation carries on returning to the fetch cycle. The Accumulator is the register that carries out arithmetical functions. The status registers contain bits that are carried bases on the result of an instruction. They also contain information on interrupts to information to get a priority on less important information. All these steps are added to the program counter. Between each stage of this cycle the data is carried on busses that take it to the address part or the data part of the cycle. There are different types of bus here are two examples. The Address Bus carries addresses so that the required locations can be accessed so they can read or write data. The Data Bus transfers the information to the correct memory location. This then means from the diagram the fetch part of the cycle carries all the data to the correct one of the execute part of the cycle. The fetch part of the cycle is common while the execute part of the cycle varies. The fetch-execute cycle is as follows:The address of the instruction is copied from the PC and held in the MAR. The instruction (e.g., add x), is placed into the MDR where it is temporarily stored. The instruction (add x), is then copied to the CIR. The PC now moves on to the next instruction, (e.g., add y). While in the CIR the instruction is decoded, this determines what the instruction has to do, (add). The operand part of the instruction, (x) is then copied to the MAR. The data item (e.g., 3), whose address is still stored in the MAR, is copied to the MDR. The item held in the MDR (3) is then added to the accumulator. The process is then repeated for the next instruction, (add y). The accumulator works as follows:For example, value x = 3, y = 4, z = 7Instructions add x, add y, add zAccumulator Value = 0â€Å" = 3â€Å" = 7â€Å" = 14The root of the single cycle processor’s problems:The cycle time has to be long enough for the slowest instruction (load)Solution:Break the instruction into smaller stepsExecute each step (instead of the entire instruction) in one cycleCycle time: time it takes to execute the longest step Keep all the steps to have similar lengthUse a register to save a signal’s value whenever a signal is generated in one clock cycle and used in another cycle laterThe advantages of the multiple cycle processor:Cycle time is much shorterDifferent instructions take different number of cycles to completeLoad takes five cyclesJump only takes three cyclesAllows a functional unit to be used more than once per instruction (though requires more muxes, registers)Well, the root of these problems of course is that facts that the Single Cycle Processor’s cycle time has to be long enough for the slowest instruction. The solution is simple. Just break the instruction into smaller steps and instead of executing an entire instruction in one cycle, we will execute each of these steps in one cycle. Since the cycle time in this case will then be the time it takes to execute the longest step, our goal should be keeping all the steps to have similar length when we break up the instruction. Well the last two bullets pretty much summarise what a multiple cycle processor is all about. The first advantage of the multiple cycle processor is of course shorter cycle time than the single cycle processor. The cycle time now only has to be long enough to execute part of the instruction (point to â€Å"breaking into steps). But may be more importantly, now different instructions can take different number of cycles to complete. For example:(1) The load instruction will take five cycles to complete. (2) But the Jump instruction will only take three cycles. This feature greatly reduces the idle time inside the processor. Finally, the multiple cycle implementation allows a functional unit to be used more than once per instruction as long as it is used on different clock cycles. For example, we can use the ALU to increment the Program Counter as well as doing address calculation. Computers and Internet

Tourism Profile †Greece

The role and significance of major cities Greece is one of the most attractive European countries for tourists from all over the world because of the country’s status as the place where history and myths meet modernity. The capital city of Greece is Athens.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Tourism Profile – Greece specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Before the 2004 Olympic Games, the capital city attracted a lot of tourists who were interested in history, arts, and philosophy because of the possibility to visit Acropolis, the famous Greek temple Parthenon, many museums and galleries. After the 2004 Olympic Games, the city is also known as one of the most visited European capitals. The major cities of Greece have not only the social but also historical significance as the European cultural heritage (Dubin). Thus, the next city which is popular with tourists is the Rhodes City. It can be characte rized by a lot of historical and archeological sites such as the Colossus of Rhodes and the numerous medieval structures in the Medieval City of Rhodes. Thousands of tourists visit the island of Rhodes and the city to see the Acropolis of Rhodes and the Temple of Apollo. Moreover, the economy of Rhodes depends on the city’s nightlife in which tourists take the active part. It is important to note that each country’s region has its main city which plays the significant role in the country’s development and contributes to its economy. Chania with the Samaria National Park and Heraklion are important for the development of Crete (Clark). Tourism in Thessaloniki is influential for the economic sector of the Macedonia region. Economic and social implications of tourism Tourism influences the economy and social life of Greece significantly. Greece is discussed as one of the European countries which have the definite economic problems, and tourism is considered as the way to stabilize the situation in the country. However, it is necessary to realize a lot of improvements in the field in order to maximize the possible benefits.Advertising Looking for research paper on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The dependence of the Greek economy on tourism is explained by the fact that the industrial sector of the country is not developed, and the orientation to the exporting agriculture requires many reforms, focusing on developing new distribution channels. From this point, tourism is important for increasing the Gross National Product of the country (Buhalis and Diamantis). The particular features of the social life in Greece also depend on the development of tourism. Thus, the labor market of the country is closely associated with the seasonal character of tourism in Greece. The migrations of tourists cause the migrations of the workforce within the country. The tourism secto r provides the young population with jobs. Moreover, it is possible to speak about the gender character of distributing jobs because women are mainly employed in the tourism sector. The accents made by the country’s leaders on the development of tourism are significant for the population not only because of the great job opportunities but also because the positive alternations in the Greek infrastructure are connected with the objectives to attract more tourists (Mak). The effects can be observed in the spheres of telecommunications, health services, and transportation. Cultural factors The culture and history are the main factors which attract tourists to visit Greece. The Greek resorts and spa centers take only the second position after visiting the archeological sites and museums of the country. The cultural diversity and uniqueness of Greece depends on the features of its location. This territory is often discussed by historians as the cradle of the European history and c ulture based on the combination of myths, archeological sites, and philosophical works. Many tourists are impressed by the historical and archeological destinations and by different traditions and practices which have various roots, but they are combined at these lands. The major trade ways crossed the country located between the Eastern and Western worlds. The Greek culture is based on the combination of the Christian and Islamic traditions which are the results of the impact of Byzantine and the Ottoman Empire. That is why, the major part of the country’s population is the Orthodox Christians, and the other significant part is the Muslims.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Tourism Profile – Greece specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Thus, the examples of the Christian and Islamic cultures can be seen in each city of Greece where magnificent churches are located. However, the Greek culture is not only the combination of definite religious traditions as a result of the years of the empires’ dominance. A lot of tourists visit Greece in order to observe the national customs, food traditions, and pay attention to the measured attitude of Greeks to their life (Bowman and Kerasiotis). Climate and topography The climate of Greece depends on its location and the particular features of the landscape. Many tourists concentrate on the fact that Greece is the country with the significant coastline where a lot of resorts are located. Furthermore, there are many wonderful islands with the mild climate. That is why, a lot of opportunities are provided for diving, sailing, and cruising. Moreover, those people who are interested in mountains can observe the great mountainous landscape at the main territory of the country. The Mediterranean climate is characteristic for Greece. Hot and dry periods of the weather from April till November are good for the development of tourism in th e region. The rainy season is from November till March. The best period for visiting the Greek islands is in June and September to avoid the warmest weather in the region during July and August. However, when the weather is not good for spending time at the beaches, it is possible to do sightseeing. Nevertheless, it is important to note that Greece is also characterized by the Alpine climate typical for the mountainous areas and by the Continental climate at the north of the country (Duke). Demographics The population of Greece is 11 million people. More than 17 million of tourists visit the country each year. The population of the country consists of the Greek majority. Nevertheless, it is important to pay attention to the diversity of the Greek population among which it is possible to determine minorities speaking different dialects.Advertising Looking for research paper on communications media? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Thus, the population of Greece is inclined to divide itself into Cretans, Maniots, Pontians, and other groups. The demographics of the tourists are also diverse. The majority of tourists are from the European countries, and they mostly visit Athens and Crete. A lot of tourists are from the Americas. In spite of the fact the population of the Asian countries is not interested in visiting Greece, the tendency begins to change in the 2000s (Bowman and Kerasiotis). Major tourist’s attractions The major tourist’s attractions are the historical and archeological sites in the main cities of the country, islands, and resorts located at the country’s coastline. The visitors who come to Athens pay attention to the famous Acropolis, the Kallimarmaron stadium and observe the pieces of history in the National Archaeological Museum. The capital of Greece is discussed as the main tourist’s city with a lot of archeological attractions and remarkable destinations. After v isiting Athens, tourists often go to Delphi, Ithaca, and Olympia to experience the unity with the ancient history. Nevertheless, the beaches of the Greek islands attract more tourists in comparison with Athens in summer. The Greek island Corfu is also popular for many attractions. Tourists have the great opportunity to enjoy the warm waters of the Ionian Sea and observe the wonderful examples of the Venetian-Roman style architecture at the territory of the island. The volcanic island Santorini in the Aegean Sea attracts the lovers of romantic sunsets. It is the best place to see unique black sandy beaches (Clark). Markets and competitive advantages and disadvantages In spite of the fact the economy of Greece is based on the development of the tourism sector significantly, there are a lot of problems which prevent the country from competing effectively with the other European countries. To analyze the market and advantages and disadvantages of the process, it is important to pay atte ntion to the strengths and weaknesses of the sector’s development and management. The advantages of the process are in the fact that tourism sector is based on the definite natural and cultural resources, and it can be characterized by flexibility and the strong local character. However, the supporting markets and industries are not developed enough to compete successfully; the problems are observed in management and marketing structures; infrastructure does not respond to the tourism seasonality (Buhalis). To create the supporting conditions for the development of tourism in Greece and for increasing the sector’s competitiveness within the global market, it is necessary to focus on intensifying the standardization, training of tourism employees, and improving the quality of the services provided. Today, the main problems in the sphere of tourism are connected with increasing the level of infrastructure to the world standards, concentrating on the transportation and ho tel services. It is important to develop a new competitive strategy for managing and regulating the tourism sector in Greece. Existing tourist infrastructure The present-day tourist infrastructure of the country depends on the effects of the 2004 Olympic Games. The developed tourist infrastructure can be observed in the major Greek cities and on the islands where the famous resorts are located. The most luxurious hotels attract visitors in Athens and in the region of Thessaloniki as well as on Crete. The development of infrastructure in Greece is slower than in the other countries, and the standards in hotels can differ from the worldwide standards and tourists’ expectations. The most famous hotels and spa centers are located at the seacoasts to attract more visitors to such Greek destinations as resorts and the mild climate (Wickens). Thus, the distribution of hotels in the country depends on the tourists’ demands significantly. Camps are also popular in Greece along with the traditional hotels. The camp sites can be found in Macedonia and Peloponnese, and they are chosen by the representatives of eco-tourists. Those tourists who visit the mainland territories of Greece and its major cities often choose rental rooms which are associated with a kind of intrusion and certain Greek traditions. To contribute to attracting more tourists, the leaders of the country focused on developing the transportation systems and increasing the possibilities of the Athens International Airport and other international airports. The role of the State Department of Tourism or National Tourism Organization In Greece, the questions of the tourism sector in the country are resolved by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism in association with the Greek National Tourism Organization (GNTO). The Ministry and GNTO are responsible for developing the tourism policy in the country and for controlling the aspects of the policy’s realization. The significance of tourism for the country’s Government can be explained by the fact the economy of Greece is based mainly on tourism. Much attention is paid to planning and implementing the effective strategies for the sector’s further progress. The most controversial issues discussed by the Ministry and GNTO are the questions of the correlation between the public and private sector within the market. Conclusions It is possible to conclude that tourism industry in Greece plays the significant role in the economic development of the country, but definite difficulties in the tourism sector’s progress influence the process negatively. The positive changes in the approach to tourism as the important factor for the country’s economic growth began after the 2004 Olympic Games. A lot of improvements and alternations were realized in the tourist’s infrastructure. Nevertheless, to achieve significant results, it is necessary to pay attention to larger changes in the tourism sector of t he country. The role of tourism in the Greek coastal regions is difficult to be overestimated. Moreover, the tendencies in the tourism sector influence the labor market of the country. From this point, any positive changes in the tourism industry can result in improving the social life of the country because the trends in the tourists’ attracting are closely connected with the rates of unemployment within the country. Tourism industry should be developed in Greece in order to contribute to maintaining the economic stability in the country. It is important to concentrate on the issue that tourism industry develops in various regions of Greece differently, and this fact is also significant for the country’s economic progress. Recommendations to visitors Before visiting Greece, it is important to pay attention to the necessary vaccinations and medications. The vaccinations are not required for the representatives of the USA and Canada. The aspects of the standardization of the Greek hotels differ from the international rules to rate the hotels. That is why, it is important to pay attention to the rate of the chosen hotel with references to the both systems of rating in order to avoid possible problems with determining the required facilities. A lot of tourists can experience difficulties associated with the fact that many people in Greece have the habit to smoke. That is why, it is important to focus on the places which are divided into the areas for smokers and non-smokers and where smoking is forbidden. The choice of the time for travelling in Greece can depend on the season in the country. Thus, many tourists can experience problems while visiting Greece during the rainy season (Bowman and Kerasiotis). Works Cited Bowman, John, and Peter Kerasiotis. Frommer’s Greece. USA: Frommers, 2010. Print. Buhalis, Dimitrios. â€Å"Relationships in the Distribution Channel of Tourism: Conflicts between Hoteliers and Tour Operators in the Mediterran ean Region†. Journal of International Hospitality, Leisure and Tourism Administration 1.1 (2000): 113–39. Print. Buhalis, Dimitrios, and Dimitrios Diamantis. â€Å"Tourism Development and Sustainability on the Greek Archipelagos†. Tourism in the Mediterranean. Ed. Georg Apostolopoulos and Dimitrios Ioannides. USA: Routledge, 2001. 28-50. Print. Clark, Richard. Crete – A Notebook: Journeys through a Mystical Landscape. Greece: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2012. Print. Dubin, Marc. Greece Athens and the Mainland. Greece: DK Travel, 2011. Print. Duke, Philip. The Tourists Gaze, the Cretans Glance: Archaeology and Tourism on a Greek Island. USA: Left Coast Press, 2007. Print. Mak, James. Tourism and the Economy: Understanding the Economics of Tourism. USA: University of Hawaii Press, 2003. Print. Wickens, Eric. â€Å"Rethinking Tourists’ Experiences†. Motivations, Behaviour and Tourist Types. Ed. Marc Robinson. Sunderland: Busines s Education Publishers, 2000. 455–472. Print. This research paper on Tourism Profile – Greece was written and submitted by user Lily Benjamin to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Sweat Essays

Sweat Essays Sweat Essay Sweat Essay Name: Course:Lecturer: Date: Sweat Analysis ‘Sweat’ is a story that concerns a woman subjugated to unrealistic household chores despite the mistreatment leveled from her husband. This aspect is very common inmost of the common marriage relationships where the women are mostly oppressed. There are many instances where people jump into marriage oblivious of the many issues that belie the relationship. The author shows that meekness does always means being weak. The protagonist is bent on making her husband happy at all times. At first, she is strongly in love with her husband and believes that the situation would persist until their demise. In fact, she tries to avoid arguing with him â€Å"†¦but she walked calmly around him and commenced to re-sort the things† (Hurston 2). This was after he intentionally disarranged the piles of clothes she had sorted out. However, the protagonist changes her attitude towards her husband completely owing to the daily mistreatment that she undergoes. Her husband was amazed by her change of attitude, â€Å"A little awed by this new Delia, he sidled out of the door and slammed the back gate after him† (Hurston 3). The author clearly shows that a woman can be both meek and string at the same time. She chooses to fight for her rights after years of overlooking them. She is ready to fight for what she has worked hard for – her house (Hurston 4). Conclusion In conclusion, I believe that the story offers profound life teachings to the people concerning attitude. This is because it elaborates different situations in which attitude changes are noted. ‘Sweat’ symbolizes the efforts put in by women in families in order to keep their families together. However, there reaches a time when they also stand for their rights if they are trampled over or taken for granted. How It Feels to be Colored Me Analysis In the second story, ‘How it Feels to be Colored Me’, Zora is a young colored boy living in a segregated part of town where there were no Whites. Zora enjoys his life in this side of town and is comfortable with life since all people believe in the same culture. In many instances, one will tend to have a limited worldview until he or she is exposed to a different environment. One will only become disillusioned on his opinion of another race only when he or she has personal contact with persons belonging to the given race. The protagonist reveals that in this residential area, everybody is colored thus making life easy for him. In fact, the coloreds â€Å"deplored†¦joyful tendencies in me, but I was their Zora nevertheless† (Hurston 2). This indicates that Zora loves the town and that he enjoys himself in the given location. However, in a twisting of events, Zora is taken to a school that is located in a White dominated region. His attitude changes completely regarding his beliefs on Whites and life after noticing that, â€Å"in the main, I feel like a brown paper bag of miscellany propped against a wall† (Hurston 3). The protagonist’s attitude changed owing to the odd behaviors of the White people as opposed to the coloreds. Conclusion I feel the story, ‘How it Feels to be Colored Me’ is of profound importance in the present society. The story touches on current issues that still affect the present society. The narration offers a real life story of African Americans in a White discriminative populace. The colored are indicated as staying in poor places known as projects. Zora only sees the Whites as they pass though their residential area with automobiles. He is not used to being given silver things by the Blacks in comparison to the Whites after singing episodes. Ripper, Jason. American Stories, Volume 2: From 1865: Living American History. New York: M.E. Sharpe, 2008. Print. Stoller, Eleanor, and Rose Gibson. Worlds of difference: inequality in the aging experience. Thousand Oaks: Pine Forge Press, 2000. Print.

Definition and Examples of Embedded Questions

Definition and Examples of Embedded Questions In English grammar, an embedded question is a  question that appears in a declarative statement or in another question. The following phrases are commonly used to introduce embedded questions:Could you tell me . . .Do you know . . .I wanted to know . . .I wonder . . .The question is . . .Who knows . . . Unlike conventional interrogative structures, in which word order is reversed, the subject usually comes before the verb in an embedded question. Also, the auxiliary verb do is not used in embedded questions. Commentary on Embedded Questions An embedded question is a question inside a statement. Here are some examples: - I was wondering if its going to rain tomorrow. (The embedded question is: Is it going to rain tomorrow?)- I suppose you dont know if they are coming. (The embedded question is: Do you know if they are coming?) You can use an embedded question when you do not want to be too direct, such as when you are speaking to someone senior in the company, and the use of a direct question seems impolite or blunt. (Elisabeth Pilbeam et al.,  English First Additional Language: Level 3. Pearson Education South Africa, 2008) Examples of Embedded Questions Would you tell me, please, which way I ought to go from here? (Alice in Alices Adventures in Wonderland, by Lewis Carroll)The question is not whether we will be extremists, but what kind of extremists we will be.(Martin Luther King, Jr.)I set up the checkerboard and  explained how the  pieces are placed and how they move. (Herbert Kohl,  The Herb Kohl Reader: Awakening the Heart of Teaching. The New Press, 2013)I live in New York, and I was thinking about the lagoon in Central Park, down near Central Park South. I was wondering if it would be frozen over when I got home, and if it was, where did the ducks go? I was wondering where the ducks went when the lagoon got all icy and frozen over. I wondered if some guy came in a truck and took them away to a zoo or something. Or if they just flew away. (J.D. Salinger, The Catcher in the Rye, 1951) Stylistic Conventions Kate [a copy editor] moves on to the second sentence: The question is, how many re-readings are reasonable? Uncertain about how to treat a question (how many re-readings are reasonable?) embedded in a sentence, she picks up [The Chicago Manual of Style] . . . [and] decides to apply the following conventions:Since the author has followed all these conventions, Kate changes nothing. The embedded question should be preceded by a comma.The first word of an embedded question is capitalized only when the question is long or has internal punctuation. A short informal embedded question begins with a lowercase letter.The question should not be in quotation marks because it is not a piece of dialogue.The question should end with a question mark because it is a direct question. (Amy Einsohn,  The Copyeditors Handbook. University of California Press, 2006) Embedded Questions in AAVE In AAVE [African-American Vernacular English], when questions are embedded in sentences themselves, the order of the subject (boldfaced) and the auxiliary (italicized) may be inverted unless the embedded question begins with if: They asked could she go to the show.I asked Alvin did he know how to play basketball. (Irene L. Clark, Concepts in Composition: Theory and Practice in the Teaching of Writing. Lawrence Erlbaum, 2003)

Essay question Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 11

Question - Essay Example This period of isolation ended with the arrival of traders in 19th century and the country engaged in trade leading to massive political, economic and social development. The Japan Empire was established after the Meiji Restoration and the country was strong enough to even engage in war and colonize neighboring empires including Manchuria, Korea, and Taiwan (Tanner, 2013). Japanese aggression extended further to China and the Kai-shek’s government lost extensively to the Japanese. Substantial forces in the China’s forces and captured the rice-producing areas of China. Even with the American military support to China, in 1940 the Japanese still triumphed over the Chinese. Japan controlled and destroyed. Japan only surrendered after the World War II hit the country hard and the emperor surrendered to the allied forces. With the embracement of industrialization, Japan became a fully industrialized country in the late 19th and throughout the 20th century. Currently, Japan ranks among the biggest economies in the world and among the strongest

Case Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Case Analysis - Essay Example From this time, people started getting more interested in bike racing as a medal event. With this increasing demand by the day, there is need for Breakaway to keep up with these by expanding production. The company is seeking to meet these demands by looking for financial options so that they can expand their business. The following discussion specifically focuses on the company in reference to its past performance as well as future prospects. In addition, the discourse focuses on cycling which has progressively gained prominence as a sporting activity. Analysis The company has been in existence since 1990 and has since then recorded success after another because of the lucrative and blossoming market. The bike frames that the company makes have been popular not only with professionals but also with other cycling enthusiasts. Mr. Giro, the founder of the company, has nurtured the company from its formative stage to the successful firm it is today. He started the company by crafting b icycle frames from a workshop behind his house and then later on moved to a larger shop. Mr. Giro is an experienced designer who has a specialization in this field for more than 20 years now. He started working with bicycle frames in his teenage years before eventually forming the Breakaway Bicycle Company. The company has several employees now, who work to ensure perfection of the customized bike frames. After Mr. Giro formed BBC, he obtained contracts that gave him the chance to design frames for highly professional teams in U.S. This exposure was a major boost to the success of the company because demand for Breakaway products kept on increasing. By 1992, two years after the company started business, BBC had hired professional frame-builders to help sustain the quality output of the company. According to their business expansion plans, BBC has proposed to borrow $200,000 from our bank. According to the financial and growth records of the company, our bank is considering granting them the loan request. In addition to making high sales, this company has been recording successful returns. BBC has gained a lot of exposure in the market by working with professional firms and cyclers as well as advertising its services in bicycle magazines. These advertisement campaigns have managed to reach to cycling enthusiasts and, consequently, boosted the success of the company. The strengths of the company are pretty notable. The company has an undisputed reputation in the market for its top of the range customized bicycle frames. They have an outstanding advantage with their innovative approach which they have used to conquer the market thus far. With innovation, the company has managed to cut a niche and stay ahead of competition. In reference to the company’s size, it can exercise a lot of flexibility in the business and, therefore, it is well in a position to adapt to changes in the market. Interestingly, competitors cannot afford this type of flexibility becaus e most of them are pretty large companies. BBC is, therefore, able to make quick company decisions and consequent implementations.We are also going to give the loan that BBC has requested because the company has almost limitless opportunities that they can seize if they are financially empowered. The company has an established consumer base among the racing circuits in Europe. Professionals who have used BBC products give impressive reports with the view that these products are way more innovative than those from other companies. With the loan that

Weaknesses of modern democracy Essay Example for Free

Weaknesses of modern democracy Essay â€Å"Democracy is the worst form of government, except for all those others that have been tried from time to time.† These are the words used by Sir Winston Churchill while he was expressing his resolve with democracy. Democracy is the dominant form of government in the world with the exception of a few countries. In Sir Winston’s statement, the phrase, â€Å"except all those others that have been tried from time to time† however, shows that despite being a weak form of government, it’s relatively the best form of governance in history1. Weaknesses of modern democracy span from the fundamental to contemporary ones as this paper illustrates. The biggest problem with modern democratically elected governments is the sluggish manner in which they conduct their business2. This is detrimental to any government’s role in deliberating on key policies. Any policy making exercise by any government should be marked by strong decisiveness. Modern democratic governments have adopted compromise in the place of decisiveness2. In circumstances where long term solutions are needed, short term solutions are made leaving problems unsolved and very sensitive to future discussions. On part of the governed, unfulfilled promises lead to disillusionment eventually resulting to numerous and sporadic government changes thus overhauls and patching of critical government programs and key policies1. A good example of sluggishness in government policing is the destitute nature of the United States economy2. Slowness in dealing with the huge public debt and recession, have drastically reduced the strength of the economy. With the congress locked in ideological partisan politics, important decisions on the economy have been unforthcoming. On the other hand, China (without democracy and very decisive) has a strong economy growing with an above average growth rate2. The original definition of democracy is; a government whereby people determine on the way they are governed mostly through elected representatives1. Democracy is guided by the core principle of majority rule2. However, today the minority as well might have their way provided there is enough money to bribe the electorate. Such governments end up spending extravagantly so as to achieve all campaign promises1. Excessive spending leads to accumulation of huge public debts, as seen in the European Union and in the USA. To settle these debts, governments end up borrowing more money and imposing huge taxes. These end up reducing an economy’s competitiveness and reducing critical investment within a country2. Another weakness in democracy is the accession of incompetent leaders to office. Most citizens in countries with modern democracy belong to a gullible bourgeois class1. An intelligent charismatic leader with self interests can easily deceive such masses to get into office. Once in office such leaders end up forgetting their promises in pursuit of personal gains2. In modern democracy, most voters do not vote due to an obligatory purpose as required in democracy but due to persuasion by candidates1. Due to the equality principle applied in democracy, this phenomenon is dangerous since not all people are intelligent enough to understand all proposed promises by candidates2. Another demerit of modern democracy is the huge cost incurred. A lot of resources and time are used and foregone in electing governments and formulating laws democratically1. Elections waste a lot of money that could instead be used for economic constructive purposes. Elected politicians also waste a lot of public money in seminars and unnecessary retreats2. It is important to note that, despite democracy having a lot of demerits; it has a lot of benefits compared to all other forms of governance ever tried so far. Only in democracy can citizens be assured of essential human rights and freedoms. It is also the only form of government that citizens can determine how and by how much to be ruled. Bibliography 1. Gupta, Tusha. â€Å"What are the advantages and disadvantages of democracy?† Preserve articles, May 16, 2012, http://www.preservearticles.com/2012051632245/what-are-the-advantages-and-disadvantages-of-democracy.html. 2. Hearnes, James. â€Å"The weaknesses of Democracy† WordPress, July 18, 2012, http://jameshearne.wordpress.com/2012/07/18/the-weaknesses-of-democracy/ View as multi-pages

The Battle of Gettysburg as the Turning Point of the Civil War Essay

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Gettysburg was the turning point of the American Civil War. This is the most famous and important Civil War Battle that occurred over three hot summer days, July 3, 1863, around the small market town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. More importantly Gettysburg was the clash between the two major American Cultures of their time: the North and the South. The causes of the Civil War, and the Battle of Gettysburg, one must understand the differences between these two cultures. The Confederacy had an agricultural economy producing tobacco, corn, and cotton, with many large plantations owned by a few very rich white males. These owners lived off the labor of sharecroppers and slaves, charging high dues for use of their land. The Southern or Confederate Army was made up of a group of white males fighting for their independence from federal northern dictates (The History Place Battle of Gettysburg 1).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Union economy was based on manufacturing, and even the minorities in the North were better off than those in the South most of the time. The Northern politicians wanted tariffs, and a large army. The Southern plantation owners wanted the exact opposite.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The South was fighting against a government that they thought was treating them unfairly. They believed the Federal Government was overtaxing them, with tariffs and property taxes making their life styles even more expensive than they already had been. The North was fighting the Civil War for two reasons, first to keep the Nation unified, and second to abolish slavery. Abraham Lincoln, the commander and chief of the Union or Northern forces along with many other Northerners believed that slavery was not only completely wrong, but it was a great humiliation to America. Once can see that with these differences a conflict would surely occur, but not many had predicted that a full-blown war would breakout. One did and after three bloody and costly years for both sides we come to the date of July 1, 1863.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Before the battle, major cities in the North such as Philadelphia, Baltimore, and even Washington, were under threat of attack from General Robert E. Lee?s Confederate Army of Northern Virginia which had crossed the Potomac River and marched into Pennsylvania.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On Tuesday morning, June 30, an infantry brigade of Confederate soldiers searching for shoes headed toward Gettysburg (The Hi... ...equal, the Battle of Gettysburg was the second and last great invasion the of the North, for the South had neither arms nor numbers to continue an assault, but the War dragged on for two more years.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On November 19, President Lincoln went to the battlefield to dedicate it as a military cemetery. He spoke for a short period of time delivering what is called the Gettysburg Address, surprising many present in the audience with its shortness and leaving others quite unimpressed, but over time the speech has come to symbolize democracy as we know it today (Funk & Wagnalls Encyclopedia Vol. 11 385).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Battle of Gettyssburg was a turning point because the South was desperately relying on that War for supplies and perhaps help from an outside source. They felt if they would have won that battle they would have been able to win the war when before they were just hoping to hang with the so-called well-prepared Union Army. The North needed a good, hard fought battle on their part because up until this point they had been men handled and out strategized. The Civil War was expected to be a quick battle easily won by the stronger northern army but had dragged on for years.

Three Kingdoms

The social and cultural development of the â€Å"Three Kingdoms† The social and cultural development of the â€Å"Three Kingdoms† The Three Kingdoms were founded after the fall of Gojoseon, and gradually conquered and absorbed various other small states and confederacies. The Three Kingdoms period ran from 57 AD until Silla's triumph over Koguryo in 668,[1] which marked the beginning of the North and South States period ( ) of Unified Silla in the South and Balhae in the North. The Three Kingdoms of Korea( refer to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Paekche and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula and parts of Manchuria for much of the 1st millennium. I think it is very interesting that in ancient China also had a period named â€Å"three kingdoms†. But we all known, it’s totally different with the â€Å"Three Kingdoms† in Korea. China would be Sui and Tang dynasties when Korea was in the period of â€Å"Three Kingdoms†. In the C hinese history, Sui and Tang dynasties had been the most prosperity period. Sui and Tang dynasties had a strong influence in Asia; the relationship of the Three Kingdoms with China presented a complex situation.On one hand, the three kingdoms launched bold military assaults against china itself at times, one the other hand, none of the Three Kingdoms showed any hesitation in adopting whatever elements of Chinese culture and statecraft might be useful for its own development. The social development of the â€Å"Three Kingdoms† The Koguryo Kingdom was founded in 37 B. C. , and by the first century, it had firmly established itself as a powerful state. Koguryo developed into a powerful nation and acted as a bulwark against the aggressive northern nations and China. 2] (There is another view in china that the ancient Kingdom of Koguryo (37 BC–AD668) was China’s vassal state, of course this view ignited a firestorm of protest in South Korea. [3]) When we talk about t he social development of Koguryo we have to refer to the King Sosurim(371-384). The King Sosurim reshaped the pattern of Koguryo’s institutions. He adopted Buddhism and established a national Confucian academy in 372. Buddhism would give the nation spiritual unity, the national Confucian academy was essential to instituting a new bureaucratic structure, and the administrative code would systematize the state structure itself.In this way Koguryo completed its initial creation of a centralized aristocratic state. These internal arrangements laid the groundwork for external expansion. King Kwanggaet’o(391-413) vigorously added new domains to Koguryo by conquest. His great military campaigns recorded on a huge stone stele still standing at his tomb. Dominated by this king, Koguryo became a vast kingdom extending over two-thirds of Korean peninsula and much of Manchuria as well. Then, King Changsu(413-491) the son of King Kwanggaest succeeded, during his reign brought Kogur yo to its flourishing height.In 427 King Changsu moved the Koguryo capital from P’yongyang, in this new metropolitan center other institutional arrangements now were perfected. Koguryo could be developed as prosperous as it was benefited from the military system I think. The military organization of Koguryo approximated the following: [3] First, Koguryo military system was based on a conscription system, Second, the King was the only supreme command and he alone could order the troops. It was considered treason to mobilize armed forces without the king's approval. It was not until after King Sindae's rule that a single army was divided in to central and local army.The central army had more power than the local army. The central army was stationed in the capital to play the role of protecting the king and defending the capital. Meanwhile, the local army was stationed in local areas to play the role of maintaining public security and defending the borders. The central army comp osed of two kinds of soldiers, Professional soldiers from the ruler class called the Kuk-in ( ), and the farmer soldiers mobilized by the conscription system who farmed in peace times and were mobilized as soldiers in times of war. The local army composed of three grade groups: Dae-sung, Je-sung, and Sung.Paekche, one of three kingdoms into which ancient Korea was divided before 660. occupying the southwestern tip of the Korean peninsula, Paekche is traditionally said to have been founded in 18B. C. in the Kwangiu area by a legendary leader named Onji. [4]( Onjo and his followers, who are described in historical records as having been responsible for the founding of Paekche Kingdom, were immigrants from Puyo in northeast China. They settled in the Han River valley at the borders between Mahan and Ye population at the end of the first century B. C. as described in the Annals of Paekche in Samguk Sagi(Records of the Three Kingdoms). )[5] In the mid-3rd century during the reign of King Koi, Paekche concentrated its strength in the greater part of the Han River basin in order to solidify its base as an ancient kingdom, and in the mid-4th century during the reign of Kunch'ogo, it progressed into its Golden Age. King Kunch'ogo conquered the remaining land of Mahan to the south, completely unified the Honam district (now Cholla-do) and by rising victorious over battles with Koguryo, ruled over the Hwanghae Province to the north.During this period, Paekche also made inroads into Japan and parts of China including Shandong and Liaoxi. In the mid-4th century, Koguryo suffered a great loss as a result of invasions by Former Yan and Paekche but in the latter half of the 4th century, during the reign of King Sosurim, Koguryo accepted Buddhism, established a school called T'aehak, and through the promulgation of various laws, readjusted its national structure. During the consecutive reigns of King Kwanggaet'o and King Changsu, Koguryo greatly expanded its territory and held hegemony in north-eastern Asia.Paekche, in the 5th century, confronted the southward advancement of Koguryo, lost the territory along the Han River basin and moved its capital to Ungjin (Kongju). With its power weakened, Paekche, in the 6th century under the reign of King Song, again moved its capital, this time to Sabisong (Puyo), and began readjusting its institutions in order to revive itself. King Song actively promoted cultural exchanges with the Southern Dynasties of China and introduced Buddhism to Japan. During this period, Paekche joined Silla to help control the Han River, only to lose it again to Silla.Silla evolved out of Saro, one of the twelve walled ­town states in the Chinhan area of southeastern Korea. This state of Saro took the lead in forming a confederated structure with the other walled town states in the region, and it is thought that the appearance of the first ruler from the Sok clan, King T'arhae (traditional dates 57-80 A. D. ), marks the beginning of t his gradual process. By the time of King Naemul (356 ­402), then, a rather large confederated kingdom had taken shape, control ­ling the region east of the Naktong River in modern North Kyongsang province.Through both conquest and federation, Saro now had reached the stage where it rapidly would transform itself into the kingdom of Shilla. Naemul, the central figure in this unfolding historical drama, adopted a title befitting his new position as the ruler of a kingdom. Instead of isagum (â€Å"successor prince†), the term used by his predecessors, Naemul took the title maripkan, a term based on a word meaning â€Å"ridge† or â€Å"elevation. † From this point on, the kingship no longer alternated among three royal houses but was monopolized on a hereditary basis by Naemul's Kim clan.In the course of his reign Naemul sought help from Koguryo in thwarting the designs of Paekche, which was making use of both Kaya and Japanese Wa forces to harass the fledgling Silla kingdom. This effort was successful, but it led to a slowing of the pace of Silla's development. Silla had taken the step of fixing the right to the kingship in the house of Kim in the time of King Naemul, and before long, with the reign of Nulchi(417-458), the pattern of father to son succession to the throne was established .Shortly thereafter the six clan communities were reorganized into administrative â€Å"districts†, bringing a step closer to fruition the design for centralization of governmental authority. It is not clear just when this restructuring was carried out, but it appears to have been under King Soji (479-500), that is, sometime in the latter half of the fifth century. The establishment of post stations throughout the country and the opening of markets in the capital where the products or different locales might be traded were among the consequences, no doubt, of such a centralizing thrust in Silla's governance of its domain.Meanwhile, to counter the p ressure being exerted on its frontiers by Koguryo, Silla had concluded an alliance with Paekche in 433. It was at this time , most likely, that Silla was able to fully free itself from Koguryo's influence in its internal affairs, and in the process Silla's ties with Peakche became further strengthened. The fact that Silla forged marriage ties with King Tongsong of Paekche after the transfer of the Paekche capital to Ungjin in 475 is recounted in a well-known tale, and in the ensuing years the two countries carried out joint military operations on several occasions.Having experienced these domestic and external developments, Silla finally completed the structuring of a centralized aristocratic state in the reign of King Beopheung (514-540). Under his predecessor, King Jinheung (500-514), Silla had achieved important advances in its agricultural technology, as plowing by oxen was introduced and, from about this same time, irrigation works were carried out extensively. The resulting in crease in agricultural production must have been one factor in promoting change in Silla society. In the political sphere, then, the nation's name was declared to be Silla† and the Chinese term wang (â€Å"king†) was adopted in place of the native title. These sinifications were not merely terminological changes but reflected Silla's readiness to accept China's advanced political institutions. Another significant political development of this period was the emergence of the Pak clan as the source of queens for Silla's kings. The foundation thus having been readied, an administrative structure fully characteristic of a centralized aristocratic state was created in Silla in the reign of King Beopheung.The clearest indication of this development is the promulgation of a code of administrative law in 520. Although its provisions are not known with certainty, it is believed to have included such regulations as those delineating the seventeen-grade office rank structure, pres cribing proper attire for the officialdom, and instituting the kolp ‘um (â€Å"bone-rank†) system. â€Å"This was a system that conferred or withheld a variety of special privileges, ranging from political preferment to economic advantage, in accordance with the degree of respect due a person’s bone-bank, that is, hereditary bloodline.There were two levels of so-called bone-bank itself, â€Å"hallowed-bone† and â€Å"true-bone. † The hallowed-bone status was held by those in the royal house of Kim who possessed the qualification to become king. Those of true-bone rank also were members of the Kim royal house but originally lacked qualification for the kingship. The distinction between hallowed-bone and true-bone rank within the same Silla royal house of Kim originally seems to have been made on the basis of maternal lineage, but eventually the two bone-ranks coalesced into a single true-bone rank.In addition there were six grade of â€Å"head-rank one. † Head-rank six was just below true-bone status, while head-ranks three, two, and one probably designated the common people, that is, the non-privileged general populace. †[6] The cultural development of â€Å"Three Kingdoms† When we talk about the cultural development of the Three Kingdoms, the Buddhism and Confucian come to mind easily. Buddhism and Confucian were first introduced to Korean in 4th century just the three kingdoms period. And they were not only spread widely in the three kingdoms, they had a deep influence on many aspects of the three kingdoms.The Three Kingdoms accepted Buddhism, which greatly advanced and expanded the scope of their culture, political structure and society etc. First, the kingdom of Goguryeo invited a monk from China with Chinese Buddhist texts and Buddha statues in 372 A. D. Later, Buddhism was introduced to the kingdom of Paekche from Goguryeo in 384 A. D. In the case of the above two kingdoms, the royal families first p racticed Buddhism. However, in the kingdom of Silla, the common people were attracted to Buddhism. After Lee Chadon's martyrdom, King Beopheung officially recognized Buddhism in 527 A.D. The influence of Buddhism was mentioned before; Buddhism in the Three Kingdoms flourished with the support of the royal family and the aristocrats. In this way, Buddhism became the state religion, which contributed to the national defense. Buddhism also had far-reaching affect in the art field of Three Kingdoms. For example, the Buddhist Temple, Buddhist sculpture, Buddhist mural etc. came to the fore with large numbers. â€Å"Buddhist sculpture went through a transformation of styles and influences as it passed on to the Three Kingdoms.There is a scarcity of Koguryo. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Buddhist images did appear in the form of lotus motifs and flame decorations on the walls of Koguryo tombs. The golden statues of the Maitreya shows the continued advancement of Paekche metal-working skills. There were a lso stone statues and pagodas that are a testament of Buddhist influences in Paekche. A distinction in Paekche sculptures that is local and purely Korean is the â€Å"Paekche smile† that the images possess. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ Silla sculpture is noted for its variety of forms(†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦), and different materials used(granite, bronze, gold, iron).The most notable Buddhist sculptures of Silla include a relief image on a cliff face with Buddhist inscriptions, and images with Korean facial characteristics. †[7] â€Å"The surviving secular art of the period consists chiefly of burial gifts taken from tombs. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦However, much pottery, along with items used for personal adornment, was uncovered in the second half of the 20th century from the less accessible Paekche and Silla tombs. The 1971 excavation of the tomb of King Munyong (died 523) and his queen in Kongju yielded many treasures, including gold crowns, silver and bronze items, and other decorative arts. †¦The most valuable pieces of Old Silla art came from huge mounded tombs in the Kyongju area. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. †[8] Three Kingdoms developed a colorful and refined aristocrat-centered Buddhist culture which was eventually introduced to Japan and greatly influenced the development of its ancient culture. â€Å"Confucianism has been the main foundation of traditional thought that deeply spread its roots in Korean society. Throughout Korean history, the Korean people respected Confucian learning and attached its great significance to education. This tradition continues to the present time.There is no ancient Korean historical record about the introduction of Confucianism, but Confucianism was transmitted to Korea through continental China before the diffusion of Chinese civilization (Clark, 1981, pp. 91-94; Grayson, 1989, pp. 60-61; Yun, 1996). According to one important historical record, Samguk-saki (Historical Record of Three Kingdoms, Kim, 1145), the Three Kingdoms, Koguryo (3 7 BC-AD 668), Paekche (18 BC-AD 660), and Silla (57 BC-AD 935), were learning Chinese ideas and culture. Therefore, Chinese systems and ideas pervaded the three early states of Korea and had significant impact on Korean culture and society. [9] Through the above information, we can see that the Confucianism affected the Korean from the Three Kingdoms period. It introduced to Koguryo in 372 in first, and the first formal institution of the elite education Taehak (National Confucian Academy), built by King Sosurim of Koguryo in 372. The institution taught the Chinese letter and the Chinese classics, such as Confucian texts. Since the purpose of the institution was mainly to foster prospective government officials, the scions of the aristocratic class only could attend at the school.The same with Paekche, it have the Confucian Academy, Paekche educated the Chinese literae humaniores and produced various Confucian academic scholars, many of whom contributed much to the development of th e ancient Japanese culture. Silla accepted the Confucian at the last, the precept of fidelity of Confucian was valued by the member of the Hwarang bands, and this cohesive force was directed up-ward to bolster the authority of the throne. There were many kinds of arts and culture did a progress in the Three Kingdoms period. Such as painting, poetry and music etc. In here, I will introduce them just simply.The painting of the Three Kingdoms period often has a strongly religious character, there’re some information can prove it to a certain extent (Korea’s earliest known paintings date to the Three Kingdoms period. Vivid polychrome paintings depicting shamanistic deities, Buddhist and Daoist themes, heavenly bodies and constellations, and scenes of daily life among Koguryo aristocrats Vivid polychrome paintings depicting shamanistic deities located along the north bank of the Yalu (Korean: Amnok) River near Ji’an, China, in the area around P’yongyang to the south, and in the Anak area in Hwanghae province.Although the Koguryo custom of painting the plastered walls of tomb burial chambers spread to Paekche and Silla (as well as to Kyushu, Japan), only a few murals from these kingdoms survive. Paintings from the Three Kingdoms are mainly those from decorated tombs. The earliest dated Koguryo tomb, the Tomb of Tongsu, or Tomb No. 3, in Anak, south of P’yongyang, was built in 357. All other known tombs except for Tokhung-ni Tomb, bearing an inscription datable to 408 ce, are undated but can be roughly classified as early (4th century), middle (5th–6th century), or late (6th–7th century).The early tomb murals were portraits of the dead master and his wife, painted either on the nichelike side walls of an entrance chamber or on the back wall of the main burial chamber. The paintings were executed on the plastered stone wall with mineral pigment. The colours used were black, deep yellow, brownish red, green, and purple. The general tone of the paintings is subdued. In the middle stage, though portraits were still painted, they depicted the dead master in connection with some important event in his life, rather than seated solemnly and godlike as in the earlier period.In the Tomb of the Dancing Figures in the Tonggou region around Ji’an, the master is shown on the northern wall of the main chamber feasting with visiting Buddhist monks. A troupe of dancers is painted on the eastern wall and a hunting scene on the western one. The delicate wiry outlines of the first phase of Korean mural painting are replaced by bold, animated lines, which are quite distinct from the prevailing Chinese styles. In the hunting scene, mounted warriors shoot at fleeing tigers and deer. Lumps of striated clay are used to depict mountain ranges.Forceful brushstrokes are used to heighten the effect of motion of the galloping horses and fleeing game. This sense of dynamism is characteristic of Koguryo painting reflecti ng the brave spirits of its people. In the third and final stage of Koguryo mural art, the technique of mural painting was improved and imagery refined under the influence of Chinese painting. Lines flow and colours are intensified. Genre paintings of preceding stages disappeared, and the Four Deities of the cardinal compass points now occupied the four walls, a concept derived from Daoist religious art of the Six Dynasties period.Dating probably from the first half of the 7th century, the paintings of the Three Tombs at Uhyon-ni, near P’yongyang, and of the Tomb of the Four Deities in Ji’an are the best examples from the final phase of Koguryo fresco painting. Tomb painting spread to Paekche, where two examples of tomb wall painting can be found, the tombs of Songsan-ni in Kongju and of Nungsan-ni in Puyo. In addition, a pillow from the tomb of King Munyong (501–523), in Kongju, features fish and dragons and lotus flowers painted in flowing exquisite lines in i nk against a red background.In the greater Silla area, one decorated tomb at Koryong in the former Kaya territory and two tombs discovered in the 1980s at Yongju have survived, but the paintings in all three are badly damaged. The best example of painting from the Old Silla period is found on a saddle mudguard made of multi-ply birch bark discovered in the Tomb of the Heavenly Horse in Kyongju in 1973; the mudguard depicts a galloping white horse surrounded by a band of honeysuckle design. ) And the same with poetry and music, they also has a strongly religious character. I think this could occur in the introduced of Buddhism.Most of poetry and music were teach by Buddhist monks or created by Buddhist monks. So we can see that the â€Å"flourishing of Buddhism both enriched the intellectual content of Three Kingdoms art and introduced markedly advanced artistic techniques, and in consequence works began to appear in which a more refined sense of beauty and harmony can be discerned. †[11] Conclusion: Through searched amount of materials and sorted out them to be the existing writings,I finally finished the paper—The social and cultural development of the â€Å"Three Kingdoms†.I have to say that it is a painstaking process, but I’m very gratified to find that I have in-depth understanding how the Three Kingdoms was. Of course, I just discoursed little aspect of it. Even then, I got some thoughts in my mind. According to my paper, each of the three kingdoms had rigid social status system. I supposed that the three kingdoms contained each other all the time. They form an alliance at times, but just for its own national interests. So they would launch war to defend their national interests. The three kingdoms had a complex relationship with China.One hand, they didn’t want be controlled by China, another hand, they wanted to absorb the Chinese culture what can improve theirs’ comprehensive national strength. The transmissio n of Buddhism and Confucian shows the importance of learn advance culture. The advanced culture can promote the development of the construction of the political and economic, moreover, it is benefit to the growth of arts and culture. Chinese saying goes â€Å"taking history as a mirror†, in my opinion, it’s doesn’t work when you learn to some other country’s history.When we learning foreign history we will take better understanding of what do they thinking, why do they do things like that†¦ I think it’s a wonderful way to promote exchanges between the countries of the world. Bibliography: [1]Encyclopedia of World History, Vol I, P464 Three Kingdoms, Korea, Edited by Marsha E. Ackermann, Michael J. Schroeder, Janice J. Terry, Jiu-Hwa Lo Upshur, Mark F. Whitters. [2] http://blog. daum. net/cor1007/8743772 [3] ? / [4] http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/438085/Paekche [5] by [6]? Korea old and new a history?Ch. 3. Aristocratic So cieties Under Monarchical Rule_ Political and Social Structure of the Three Kingdoms p32~p33 [7] http://scienceview. berkeley. edu/VI/index. html [8]http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/719289/Korean-art/283332/Three-Kingdoms-period-c-57-bce-668-ce [9]Radical Pedagogy (2001) ISSN: 1524-6345 Jeong-Kyu Lee, Ph. D. Division of Educational Policy Research Korean Educational Development Institute/Hongik University [10] ? Korea old and new a history? Ch. 3. Aristocratic Societies Under Monarchical Rule_ Political and Social Structure of the Three Kingdoms p39

Business Studies with Specialisms Essay

Discuss the characteristics of the scientific method which makes it superior over other methods as a means of obtaining new and reliable knowledge Introduction Marketing research has borrowed liberally from other disciplines; this is not surprising because research methodologies and techniques have application over many fields of study. Like other emerging disciplines, marketing research theory has been developed by creative adaptation rather than blind adoption. The extent to which marketing theory has been built on borrowed concepts was noted some years ago by the Marketing Science Institute of America. Historically, most sciences started by borrowing their conceptual approach and general theoretical ideas from other sciences. Joyce1 has observed that: Market research is not a practice or study isolated from other practices or studies. It has drawn freely from certain expert academic fields and will no doubt continue to do so. Further, market research organisations make use of people with expert, specialist training – especially from those fields known broadly as ‘the social sciences ‘ – both as staff members and consultants. It took a long while to determine how is the world better investigated. One way is to talk about it. For example: Aristotle, the Greek philosopher, stated that males and females have different number of teeth, without bothering to check; he then provided long arguments as to why this is the way things ought to be. This method is unreliable: to determine whether a statement is correct it requires evidence. Debating over a subject or putting an argument forward does not qualify as proof. Consideration of the history of research methods requires a look at the history of science. What is Science? A basic question asked by many and answered in almost as many ways. Early roots of science begin with Plato (427-347 B.C.) and his search for everlasting truth and reality. James Randi2 defines science as: ‘a careful, disciplined, logical search for knowledge about any and all aspects of the universe, obtained by examination of the best available evidence. What’s left is magic. And it doesn’t work.’ We can define science as a methodical approach to the acquisition of knowledge. This important word distinguishes how a scientist works from how people learn about the world. Ross Koning3 has some personal observations: ‘Creation must have occurred because life was not always here. Science is merely saying creation was not sudden and is still on-going. Science does not deny existence of God, God just cannot be tested scientifically. Scientists are commonly very religious. Science is the acquisition of truth.’ Modern science is an amazing phenomenon, and curiosity of how it works will continue to occupy people’s minds. The Scientific Method On a broad level, science is a methodology for attaining knowledge, where knowledge is a form of belief distinct from mere opinion or uninformed guesswork. Science is not the knowledge gained through the approach; hence, knowledge can be gained through a variety of ways. Science seeks out better ways of representing our experiences. The experiences and their representation in a system of beliefs are termed, respectively, observation and theory. Recognizing that personal and cultural beliefs influence both our perceptions and our interpretations of natural phenomena, the aim is through the use of standard procedures and criteria to minimize those influences when developing a theory. A better approach is to do experiments and perform careful observations. The results of this approach are universal in the sense that they can be reproduced by any skeptic. It is from these ideas that the scientific method was developed. What is the â€Å"scientific method†? The scientific method is the best way yet discovered for scrutinizing the truth from lies and delusion. It is based upon evidence rather than belief. This distinguishes science from faith. The scientific method revolves around the following key steps: 1. Observe some aspect of the universe 2. Invent a tentative description, called a hypothesis, that is consistent with what you have observed 3. Use the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations 4. Perform experimental tests of the predictions and modify hypothesis 5. Return to step 3 to ensure of no discrepancies between theory and experiment. The scientific method is founded upon direct observation of the world around us. A scientist looks critically and attempts to avoid all sources of bias in this observation. But more than looking, a scientist measures to quantify the observations; this helps in avoiding bias. Which of these lines is longer? The both lines are the same length, though human bias might generate belief that one is longer than the other. The scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of bias or prejudice in the experiment when testing a hypothesis or a theory. The next part of the scientific method is to form a hypothesis. This is merely an educated guess. You examine the literature on the subject and gather as much knowledge from books as possible to begin to arrive at an answer. This tentative answer†¦this best educated guess†¦is your hypothesis. There is one important aspect to the hypothesis. It must be rejectable. There must be a way to test the possible answer to try to make it fail. If you design an untestable hypothesis, then science cannot be used to help you decide if it is right or not. For example: you hypothesis that ‘God is awake’. There is no way to test your hypothesis scientifically; therefore, there is no way to make it fail. If the experiments bear out the hypothesis it may come to be regarded as a theory, which then provides rational statements that explain a phenomena. This theory produces explanations to observations and predictions are made. To a scientist a theory is a conceptual framework that explains existing observations and predicts new ones. On the other hand, if the experiments do not bear out the hypothesis, it must be rejected or modified. Prediction is a way to put the hypothesis to a test. The prediction has three parts: 1. If my hypothesis is true†¦ 2. Then_____ should happen 3. When_____ is manipulated The manipulation is what you knew would likely falsify your hypothesis. If this prediction holds then you will not be able to reject your hypothesis. If this prediction does not hold then you will reject your hypothesis. The scientific method requires that an hypothesis be ruled out or modified if its predictions are clearly and repeatedly incompatible with experiment tests. In every experimental science, ‘experiment is supreme’ and experimental verification of hypothetical predictions is absolutely necessary. Experiments may test the theory directly or may test for consequences derived from the theory using mathematics and logic. The necessity of experiment also implies that a theory must be testable. Theories which cannot be tested, because, for instance, they have no observable ramifications, do not qualify as scientific theories. One of the key factors of scientific method is that the theory must be falsifable. Sir Karl Popper (1902-1994): Falsificationism (1993) Demarcation Criteria: Science is divided from psuedo-science or â€Å"myth† by making statements which are potentially falsifiable. When a hypothesis passes the test it is adopted as a theory it correctly explains a range of phenomena it can, at any time, be falsified by new experimental evidence. When exploring a new set or phenomena scientists do use existing theories, however, it is always kept in mind that the old theories might fail to explain the new experiments and observations. In this case new hypotheses are devised and tested until a new theory emerges. A theory is accepted not based on the prestige or convincing powers of the proponent, but on the results obtained through observations and experiments which anyone can reproduce. Most experiments and observations are repeated many times. If the original claims are not verified the process returns to the origin of such discrepancies. Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It attempts to answer the basic question: what distinguishes true (adequate) knowledge from false (inadequate) knowledge? Practically, this question translates into issues if scientific methodology: how can one develop theories or models that are better than competing theories? It is possible to construct a useful and reliable model for understanding scientific reasoning, known as the â€Å"Hypothetico-Deductive† model. The heart of the â€Å"Hypothetico-Deductive† model is deductive reasoning (induction plays a role primarily in generating laws about observations that are then deduced from theory, such as the law of multiple proportions). According to the H-D model, hypotheses and theories are sets of general principles that are said to explain and predict observable results. A theory is successful insofar as observable consequences can be deduced from those general principles and statements. When a positive instance of a predicted observation occurs, it is said to confirm that theory. Deductive and Inductive Thinking In logic, two broad methods of reasoning are referred to: the deductive and inductive approaches. Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a ‘top-down’ approach. The process may begin with thinking up a theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data – a confirmation (or not) of our original theories. Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. Informally, it is often known as a â€Å"bottom-up† approach. In inductive reasoning, the process begins with specific observations and measures, then patterns and regularities are detected, formulating some tentative hypotheses that we can explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories. Inductive reasoning, by its very nature, is more open-ended and exploratory, especially at the beginning. Deductive reasoning is narrower in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming hypotheses. Even though a particular study may look like it’s purely deductive (e.g., an experiment designed to test the hypothesized effects of some treatment on some outcome), most social research involves both inductive and deductive reasoning processes at some time in the project. The two graphs above can be assembled into a single circular one that continually cycles from theories down to observations and back up to theories. Even in the most constrained experiment, the researchers may observe patterns in the data that lead them to develop new theories. Comparison of Properties Deduction 1. In a valid deductive argument, all of the content of the conclusion is present, at least implicitly, in the premises. Deduction is nonampliative 2. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. Valid deduction is necessarily truth preserving. 3. If new premises are added to a valid deductive argument (and none of its premises are changed or deleted) the argument remains valid. Deduction is erosion-proof. 4. Deductive validity is an all-or-nothing matter; validity does not come in degrees. An argument is totally valid, or it is invalid Induction 1. Induction is ampliative. The conclusion of an inductive argument has content that goes beyond the content of its premises. 2. A correct inductive argument may have true premises and a false conclusion. Induction is not necessarily truth preserving. 3. New premises may completely undermine a strong inductive argument. Induction is not erosion-proof. 4. Inductive arguments come in different degrees of strength. In some inductions the premises support the conclusions more strongly than in others. Source: Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. Merilee H. Salmon, John Earman, Clark Glymour, James G. Lennox, Peter Machamer, J.E. McGuire, John D. Norton, Wesley C. Salmon, and Kenneth H. Schaffner. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1992. Available: http://dharma-haven.org/science/myth-of-scientific-method.htm Non-Scientific Sources 1. Common Sense People often refer to their knowledge and skills as common sense. It is good sense in everyday affairs. For example: The old farmer didn’t have much education but had always gotten along on a lot of common sense. He is hopeful that in the event of another war the world powers may summon enough common sense to avoid mass atomic destruction. Having a practical intelligence in different situations can derive knowledge that is of immense value. This practical intelligence has been gained naturally from the individual’s experience throughout their life and cannot be applied to any education or training. The experiences that an individual has been through during their life may affect their ability to produce unbiased knowledge. 2. Trial and Error Trial and Error is a method of learning by trying out different responses to a new situation until one response is successful. The desired result is then played on for future use and noted by the researcher. It can be quite a time consuming activity, however, similar problems in the future may benefit from the experiment. 3. Tenacity Tenacity is the determination to continue what you are doing. It means that the knowledge derived from previous studies must be recognised as it holds true value for a long period of time. 4. Intuition Intuition is a psychological and philosophical term which designates the process of immediate apprehension or perception of an actual fact, being or relation between two terms and its results. As an element of educational method intuition means the grasp of knowledge by concrete, experimental or intellectual, ways of apprehension. The importance of intuition as a process and element of knowledge is easily seen if we observe that it is intuition which furnishes us with the first experimental data as well as with the primary concepts and the fundamental judgements or principles which are the primitive elements and the foundation of every speculation. 5. Authority An expert provides knowledge on a particular subject, whereby subordinates accept the idea or concept as a respected source of knowledge. 6. Rationalism Rationalism is a philosophical movement which attempts to study the universe using reason, in the form of deductive and mathematical methods, rather than sense experience. Descartes, for example, tried to deduce what God’s world is like from the axioms of divine existence and goodness. When sourcing knowledge rationalism can be misleading when it is used alone, however, improving the accuracy of the principles associated with the subject will result in better sourcing. 7. Empiricism Any view which bases our knowledge, or the materials from which it is constructed, on experience through the traditional five senses. It is opposed to rationalism and denies that we have any a priori knowledge or innate ideas: we owe all our concepts to experience of the world. A priori knowledge is any kind of knowledge that is in no way derived from sense experience, observation or experiment. What might be called the classical empiricist view is associated especially with Locke, the first of the so-called British Empiricists, and his successors Berkeley and Hume. Empiricism has its roots in the idea that all we can know about the world is what the world cares to tell us; we must observe it neutrally and dispassionately, and any attempt on our part to mould or interfere with the process of receiving this information can only lead to distortion and arbitrary imaging. Conclusion The scientific method is intricately associated with science, the process of human inquiry that pervades the modern era on many levels. While the method appears simple and logical in description, there is perhaps no more complex question than that of knowing how we come to know things. In comparison with the non-scientific sources the emphasis here is that the scientific method distinguishes science from other forms of explanation because of its requirements of systematic experimentation. We use specific methods because they are objective, public and can give repeatable results. The question of how science is so successful at improving understanding is hardly every presented as a question at all. No matter what happens, you will learn something. Science is not only about getting ‘the answer’. Scientists who study extremely complex problems can spend a lifetime and not find ‘the answer’. Even so, their results may eventually play a part in completing the full picture of understanding. Animal and children may learn about whatever they pay attention to, and so do scientists.